Theories and models
Kolb & Lewin
Learning styles specifically deal with characteristic styles of learning. Kolb (1984) proposes a theory of experiential learning that involves four principal stages: concrete experiences, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation.
The CE/AC and AE/RO dimensions are polar opposites as far as learning styles are concerned and Kolb postulates four types of learners (divergers, assimilators, convergers, and accommodators) depending upon their position on these two dimensions. For example, an accommodater prefers concrete experiences and active experimentation (AE, CE).
A common approach to viewing learning styles is linked to a learning cycle of experience, observation and reflection, formation and then testing of concepts. Although commonly referred to as the Kolb Learning Cycle this cycle was proposed by Kurt Lewin who got the idea from control engineering. David Kolb (1984) popularized Lewin's proposal (hence the common title).
The four stages of the Experiential Learning Cycle are:-
- Concrete experience
- Observation and Reflection
- Abstract Conceptualization
- Testing concepts in new situations
The cycle is a continuous process with the current 'concrete experience' being the basis for observations and reflections, which allow the development of a 'theory'. The 'theory' is then tested in new situations to lead to more concrete experience.
Kolb developed from the Lewin model the idea that students have a dominant phase of the cycle during which they prefer to learn and therefore will have preferred modes of learning. In order to identify the preferred study and learning styles, Kolb developed a Learning Style Inventory that identified student's preference for the four modes corresponding to the stages in the learning cycle.
Honey and Mumford - LSQ
The LSQ (learning Style Questionnaire) is a self-administered questionnaire determines your preferred learning style.
Knowing your learning style can accelerate your learning as you undertake activities that best fit your preferred style.
Knowing your learning style can also help avoid repeating mistakes by undertaking activities that strengthen other styles For example, if you tend to “jump in at the deep end”, consider spending time reflecting on experiences before taking action.
Activitists (Do)
- Immerse themselves fully in new experiences
- Enjoy here and now
- Open minded, enthusiastic, flexible
- Act first, consider consequences later
- Seek to center activity around themselves
Reflectors (Review)
- Stand back and observe
- Cautious, take a back seat
- Collect and analyze data about experience and events, slow to reach conclusions
- Use information from past, present and immediate observations to maintain a big picture perspective.
Theorists (Conclude)
- Think through problems in a logical manner, value rationality and objectivity
- Assimilate disparate facts into coherent theories
- Disciplined, aiming to fit things into rational order
- Keen on basic assumptions, principles, theories, models and systems thinking
Pragmatists (Plan)
- Keen to put ideas, theories and techniques into practice
- Search new ideas and experiment
- Act quickly and confidently on ideas, gets straight to the point
- Are impatient with endless discussion
* The LSQ is available from the Peter Honey Web site - The LSQ is © Peter Honey
Guilford/ NLP
In Guilford's Structure of Intellect (SI) theory, intelligence is viewed as comprising operations, contents, and products. There are 5 kinds of operations (cognition, memory, divergent production, convergent production, evaluation), 6 kinds of products (units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and implications), and 5 kinds of contents (visual, auditory, symbolic, semantic, behavioral). Since each of these dimensions is independent, there are theoretically 150 different components of intelligence.
The 'tradational' VARK style questionnaire attributed to the field of NLP originated as part of Guildford's work.
Gardner
Overview:
The theory of multiple intelligences suggests that there are a number of distinct forms of intelligence that each individual possesses in varying degrees. Gardner proposes seven primary forms: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (e.g., insight, metacognition) and interpersonal (e.g., social skills).
According to Gardner, the implication of the theory is that learning/teaching should focus on the particular intelligences of each person. For example, if an individual has strong spatial or musical intelligences, they should be encouraged to develop these abilities. Gardner points out that the different intelligences represent not only different content domains but also learning modalities. A further implication of the theory is that assessment of abilities should measure all forms of intelligence, not just linguistic and logical-mathematical.
Gardner also emphasizes the cultural context of multiple intelligences. Each culture tends to emphasize particular intelligences.
The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner originally proposed seven different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults.
These intelligences are:
| Linguistic intelligence ("word smart"): |
| Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart") |
| Spatial intelligence ("picture smart") |
| Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart") |
| Musical intelligence ("music smart") |
| Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart") |
| Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart") |
| Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart") - added later... |
Are there additional intelligences?
Since Howard Gardner's original listing of the intelligences in Frames of Mind (1983) there has been a great deal of discussion as to other possible candidates for inclusion (or candidates for exclusion). Subsequent research and reflection by Howard Gardner and his colleagues has looked to three particular possibilities: a naturalist intelligence, a spiritual intelligence and an existential intelligence. He has concluded that the first of these 'merits addition to the list of the original seven intelligences' .
Naturalist intelligence enables human beings to recognize, categorize and draw upon certain features of the environment. It 'combines a description of the core ability with a characterization of the role that many cultures value'.
The case for inclusion of naturalist intelligence appears pretty straightforward, the position with regard to spiritual intelligence is far more complex. According to Howard Gardner there are problems, for example, around the 'content' of spiritual intelligence, its privileged but unsubstantiated claims with regard to truth value, 'and the need for it to be partially identified through its effect on other people'.
4MAT
4MAT framework based on the work of Bernice McCarthy which suggests 4 learning modes.
The four learning styles identified by McCarthy are:
Type 1: Innovative Learners are primarily interested in personal meaning. They need to have reasons for learning--ideally, reasons that connect new information with personal experience and establish that information's usefulness in daily life. Some of the many instructional modes effective with this learner type are cooperative learning, brainstorming, and integration of content areas (e.g., science with social studies, writing with the arts, etc.).
Type 2: Analytic Learners are primarily interested in acquiring facts in order to deepen their understanding of concepts and processes. They are capable of learning effectively from lectures, and enjoy independent research, analysis of data, and hearing what "the experts" have to say.
Type 3: Common Sense Learners are primarily interested in how things work; they want to "get in and try it." Concrete, experiential learning activities work best for them--using manipulatives, hands-on tasks, kinesthetic experience, etc.
Type 4: Dynamic Learners are primarily interested in self-directed discovery. They rely heavily on their own intuition, and seek to teach both themselves and others. Any type of independent study is effective for these learners. They also enjoy simulations, role play, and games.
PASK
Pask has described a learning style called serialist versus holist. Serialists prefer to learn in a sequential fashion, whereas holists prefer to learn in a hierarchial manner
On-line: assessments, inventories,and tests
NOTE: the validity of these tests is not endorsed. One should be careful when considering how to action the self-awareness these instruments profess to offer. USE WITH CAUTION.
Index of Learning Styles Questionnaire Online questionnaire prepared by Soloman and Felder, North Carolina State University
Learning Styles Resources posted by the Center for Academic Excellence (CAE) at Tufts University Measure your learning style
Perceptual Modality Preferences Survey Online questionnaire from the Institute for Learning Styles Research
VARK Questionnaire Click on "take the questionnaire"
Alternative VARK
Alternative VARK
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